ENGLISH 2321: STUDY GUIDE FOR EXAM ONE

I.Major Works: Major characters and events from these works. Also, match Canterbury tale with genre (listed in II.5)

1) Beowulf

2) Canterbury Tales

a. General Prologue

b. Miller’s Tale

c. Nun’s Priest’s Tale

d. Pardoner’s Tale

e. Parson’s Tale

f. Wife of Bath’s Tale

3) Morte D’Arthur: know significance of these knights: Gawain, Gareth, Mordred, Tristram, Launcelot, Percival, Galahad, Bors. Also know these characters: Isolde, Guinevere, Ygraine, Merlin, Uther Pen-dragon, King Mark of Cornwall. Also know significance of the work’s title and Grail Quest.

II. Other test material/ literary terms

1. Epic(Characteristics)

2. Ballads (Characteristics)

3. Plot: conflict, protagonist, antagonist, climax, theme

4. Levels of narration: a) Persona b) Narrator

5. Literary genres: a) Arthurian romance b) Fableau c) Exemplum d) Beast Fable e) Moral treatise

6. Scop

7. Mystery and Morality Plays

8. Personifications

III. Explanations:

A. BEOWULF

1. Epic (distinguish between "folk" (no known author) and "literary" (known author) epic)

a. It treats an event of national significance.

b. It is comparatively long.

c. It contains elements of the supernatural.

d. It has a hero who represents the cultural ideal.

e. It is written in lofty verse/elevated style

f. Folk epics are transmitted orally before they are written down.

g. Meant to be recited.

h. Trip to the underworld.

i. Folk epic anonymous

j. "Bible" function

k. It begins "In media res" (in the midst of things)

l. Comparatively vast setting

m. Episodic (contains many stories united by a common theme, like a TV mini-series)

n. Objectivity of narrator (the narrator rarely evaluates/judges the events and characters)

2. Composition

a. Historical Beowulf lived about 550 (mid Anglo-Saxon migration from Germany to England)

b. The epic was written down by Christian priest, sometime between 700 and 900.

c. The only extant (surviving) manuscript was damaged in 1731 fire.

3. The story and characters: Beowulf (Geat-Swede of Hygelac's tribe) travels to modern day Denmark to help Scyldings-Danes of Hrothgar: doing this, he exemplifies an ideal warrior.

a. Litotes (understatement) often is used. For example, "Killing the dragon was not easy."

b. Scop is a warrior who sings, and the epic contains poems chanted by the scop.

c. The theme of Beowulf the outsider: exiled father's troubles; Beowulf himself is despised as youth; he becomes insider by serving the tribe.

d. All Beowulf's virtues relate to single ideal: serve the tribe.

i. Beowulf as treasure giver.

ii. Beowulf is physically strong.

iii. Beowulf keeps no secrets from fellow tribesmen.

iv.. He destroys enemies of tribe.

v. He trusts in God.

vi. He repays favors (Hrothgar had helped his father.

vii. He upholds communal values (detests blood murder).

viii. He is "chivalrous" and fortunate.

ix. He fulfills social ideal.

x. Doesn't drink/kill (compare with Unferth).

xi. Beowulf and Hrothgar's love.

xii. He is peaceful.

xiii. Negative ideal is opposed to Beowulf.

e. Story of flood.

f. Beowulf attacked by walrus.

g. One of few references to women: negative and positive queens

h. Beowulf's previous adventures.

4. Debates/Problems about the composition of Beowulf:

a. Is the epic complete or incomplete?

b. Were the episodes originally all about Beowulf, or were they about different heroes (and someone took the stories, combined them into a single poem, and made Beowulf the hero of all of them)?

d. How did the impact and nature of the poem change, when it was transformed from an oral work into a written work?

e. What is the relationship between the poem's pagan and Christian elements? How much did the Christian scribe-priest change the work, when he put it into writing.

f. The poem was composed orally when the Anglo-Saxons were mostly still in Germany. When the poem was written down, the Anglo-Saxons had become English. How did this fact influence the poem?

g. The author(s) of the poem could have included much more material in the poem. Why didn't they?

B. LITERARY TERMS and BEOWULF

Out of the millions of stories that have been written and told, nearly all of them follow the same pattern of Protagonist (the central figure in a work) vs. Antagonist (whatever opposes the protagonist). This opposition is called the conflict. Where the conflict is resolved (where we find out "who wins") is the climax. All of this is the plot, and the message (or lesson) is the theme (a term that can also mean “general subject). A work can have more than one plot, conflict, and theme. For example, Beowulf exemplifies all of the major types of conflicts: Man vs. Man, Man vs. Himself, Man vs. Nature, Man vs. Society, Man vs. the Supernatural

A. Conflict

i. Man vs. Man (Beowulf [who serves the tribe] vs Unferth [disrupter of tribe]).

ii. Man vs Nature (Beowulf vs. Grendel).

iii. Man vs. Society (Beowulf the outsider vs. Society (which had exiled his father).

iv. Man vs. Himself (Beowulf vs "the beast within" (his own savage nature).

v. Man vs. the Supernatural (Beowulf vs. Dragon/Grendel)

B. Climax and Theme

i. Man vs. Man: Unferth gives Beowulf his sword, signifying that someone who serves the tribe is stronger than someone who disrupts the tribe.

ii. Man vs. Nature: Beowulf kills Grendel (a symbol of savage, primitive nature). Beowulf doesn't reason with Nature/monster but kills it. Theme: Man, can and should conquer nature, through force (people during this time were continuously faced with the threat of a harsh, brief life because of the environment).

iii. Man vs. Society---Beowulf becomes king. Theme: an outcast can become a hero by serving the tribe. Note that Heorot (pronounced "hart"?) is attacked by Grendel; he takes over this mead hall, which was the center of tribal social life; Grendel/Cain the outcast breaks into society (p 35), makes himself accepted by society by attacking it. Trror reigns for 12 years at night. Contrast with this with the the "outcast" young Beowulf, who through service to tribe and God's grace becomes king.

iv. Man vs. Himself: Beowulf kills Grendel (which represents Beowulf's savage side). Theme: to become a role model, a warrior must become civilized, accept rather than attack society.

v. Man vs. Supernatural: Beowulf kills Grendel. Theme: Man can overcome the supernatural.

C. Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer (ca 1343-1400)

A. Biography

a. Italian journeys (1372, 78): Middle Ages were ending in Italy, but they were high in England; Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio strongly influence Chaucer.

b. Chaucer's Middle-class origin: provides him with a unique overview/contacts with all society.

c. Chaucer becomes an administrator-diplomat for powerful aristocrats John of Gaunt and Lionel, Duke of Clarence.

d. Chaucer is ransomed from French by Edward III, for whom he fought.

e. He had an apparently unhappy marriage to an aristocratic wife

B. Works

a. French period 1359-72; wrote The Book of the Duchess (dream-vision on death of Blanche of Castille/Lancaster, John of Gaunt's first wife) and translated another dream vision, the French The Romance of the Rose

b. Italian period 1372-86: influenced especially by Boccaccio: Chaucer writes The House of Fame, The Parliament of Fowles, The Legend of Good Women, and Troilus and Cressida (summaries of these works are in the Oxford Companion to Literature)

c. Mature period 1386 until his death in 1400: Canterbury Tales.

C. The Canterbury Tales

a. Pilgrims are going to Canterbury, to the shrine of Thomas a' Becket. They meet at the Tabard Inn in London to start their journey.

b. Original plan: 30 pilgrims, plus as judge the owner of Tabard Inn where the Pilgrims meet to start their trip. Each pilgrim tells 2 tales going there, and 2 tales going back (for a total of 120 tales). Chaucer only wrote 22 tales and 2 fragments. Canon and his Yeoman join on the way, but Canon leaves. Prize is supper, paid for by all. Anyone who disputes the judge’s decision must pay for all of dinner.

c. If he didn’t get the idea for the story telling from Giovanni Boccaccio (1313 – 1375), he was still heavily influenced by him. Boccaccio is the Italian author of The Decameron, a story-telling contest with 100 tales (a tale a day by 10 aristocrats [inside a country villa to escape the plague] for 10 days).

c. The pilgrims, as tellers of the tales, are extremely important, both in themselves and for understanding their tales.

d. Popular work, 80 extant manuscripts; printed by Caxton (first English printer) in 1476, then by others.

e. Pilgrims

i. Nun's priest mentioned in Prologue (page 219)

ii. Franklin in Prologue (page 223) (a franklin was a prosperous country gentleman who rose from peasant class)

iii. Wife in Prologue (page 226)

iv. Miller (page 228)

v. Pardoner (page 231)

vi. Chaucer himself is a character-pilgrim. The character Chaucer begins with "Tale of Sir Thopas"---perhaps a parody of Romance. Too dull to hear, says the Host. The character Chaucer stops and tells another romance. "Tale of Melibeous" Relate this to "retraction" and Chaucer's claim that tales are Pilgrims' and not his creations.

f. Tales (for summaries see The Oxford Companion to English Literature)

i. "Knight's Tale": medieval romance (a romance is a story about the adventures of knights)

ii. "Miller's Tale": Fableau: a genre that usually includes scatology, which is humor involving body functions ["bathroom humor"] and sex. Fableau also usually focus on persons from the peasantry.

iii."Franklin's Tale": Non-Arthurian Romance: again, a romance is story about the exploits of nights.

iv. "Pardoner's Tale": Exemplum---story that illustrates, very explicitly and straightforwardly, a moral, often for a sermon.

v. "Nun's Priest's Tale": Beast Fable: a story with animal characters that illustrates, explicitly and straightforwardly, a moral.

vi. "Parson's Tale": moral treatise: a non-fictional discussion (rather than fictional representation) of a moral topic.

g. "Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale"

i. Prologue

(1). Defense, attack, or non-fiction on women? All women or middle class women? (the Wife is wealthy, a traveler, active in the wool trade, and her last husband was apparently a student [clerk]).

(2). First married at 12 years old (not unusual at this time), she's had 5 husbands

(3). The theme of the Church's misogyny (negative view of women). The priestly vow of celibacy angers the Wife.

(4). Janekin's (her last husband's) mistake (reading anti-women books to the Wife), the Wife's ripping pages out of the book, and and Janekin's retaliation (he hits her in the ear so hard that it leaves her almost deaf).

ii. Tale: Arthurian romance: story about one of King Arthur's knights

(1). Begins with sneer at friars (a Friar attempted to make the wife stop discussing her husbands and start telling her tale)

(2). Rapist knight, sentenced to death by King Arthur, is saved by court ladies, who sentence the Knight to a creative quest/punishment. The knight, within a year, must find the answer to a question: "What do women want most?" He receives an answer from a hag on the condition that he do her any favor she asks. He returns to court with his answer: "Women want to command men" (or, perhaps, women want greater control or their own lives). This is accepted as the right answer. The hag then appears and, as the favor, demands that the young knight marry her. He does so reluctantly.When he sulks, she tells him that she can appear young and beautiful, but then she might not be faithful: how should she appear? The knight lets her decide, and she chooses to be beautiful and faithful (illustrating the theme that allowing women more control over their lives will produce lasting happiness).

h. "Franklin's Tale": non-Arthurian romance: Dorigen, Averagus, Aurelius.

i. "Pardoners' Prologue and Tale"

i. Prologue: Pardoner reveals tricks of preaching: his favorite theme for his sermons is avarice is root of all evil, to con listeners to give him their money; likes good life.

ii. Tale: well-crafted exemplum on Death (exemplum: tale that illustrates, very explicitly, a moral, often in a sermon)

j. "Nun's Priest's Tale": Beast fable from French Reynard the Fox (beast fable: story with animal characters, with a very pointed moral)

k. "Parson's Tale": sermon/moral treatise from pilgrim who objects on religious grounds to "fables." Sermon/moral treatise: prose discussion of moral issues.

m. Norton Critical Edition Commentary (not included in textbook)

i. Hoffman

(1). Two voices of secular and religious, spring of maypoles and of Easter, natural and supernatural, pagan and Christian. Chaucer includes both as "good" or at least as there. In short, the Tales are an amoral, non-judgmental "celebration of life."

(2). The Prioress good example of combining both sides of life (sacred and profane) (pp. 464-65); other examples, Parson and Plowman (brothers) and Summoner and Pardoner (pp. 467-69, 471)

(3). Figures function like a tapestry, they modify rather than oppose one another (p. 463)

ii. Mann

(1). Tales contradict and modify one another (p. 471)

(2). No absolute viewpoint (p. 472): the effect on satire (pp. 473, 479), and morality (pp. 479-80)

(3). Sociability as a primary criterion of morality (pp. 475-76)

(4). Relative meaning of courtesy (p. 478)

(5). Summary (p. 482)

iii. Donaldson

(1). Different views of Chaucer the pilgrim (pp. 484-85)

(2). Complex interplay of levels of narration (pp. 491-92).

iv. Kittredge

(1). "Marriage group" of tales started by "Wife's Tale"

(2). Then "Clerk's Tale" of Griselda, then "Franklin's Tale": summarizes this on p. 530.

b. Literary terms and Canterbury Tales: Levels of narration: the sources for a work of literature. All works have at least two, and most have three. Think of a work of literature as a river that originates in the mountains. Trace the river to its source, marking the points where the river is significantly shaped or modified. For example, what is the immediate source for a Canterbury tale? The pilgrim who tells the tale. This would be the lowest level. But trace the tale back a little, and we find that we learn about the pilgrim from the narrator, the "voice" that provides us with all the information we have in the work. Is this the final level/source? Absolutely not, as the narrator was created by the author, which is another level of narration. Is the author then the ultimate source? No, as there is always a difference---sometimes large, sometimes small---between the author and the person: we all have many different sides to our personalities; and for a writer, the guise of author is simply one persona ("mask") that he wears. For example, you probably know people who are very different at school (or work) from what they are at home. The writer in his office (or work) differs from the writer at home or anyplace else. Is the person then the ultimate final source for a work? Perhaps, but many people have believed art is inspired. The ancient Greeks and Romans believed art was inspired by divinities, especially gods and Muses---who lived on a mountain.

D.Ballads: a. Oral b. Ballad quatrain c. Anonymous d. Folk origin e. Communal/Community consensus values f. Objective (narrator doesn't judge or evaluate what happens) g. Dialogue characters talk to one another, with "word for word" quotes) h. Narrative (tells a story, rather than describe a scene, or express an opinion or feeling) i. Tragic (unhappy ending, usually involving death) j. Scottish k. Simple l. Refrain (repeated words or line).

E. Arthurian Romance: Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte D'Arthur (Citations do not refer to Norton text; they refer to the Penguin paperback edition):

a. Arthurian legends: originally French provencal poetry, Chretien de Troyes.

b. Caxton's purpose (p. 6)

c. Henry VII's Tudor propaganda: promotes claim that he was descended from King Arthur after he wins crown at Battle of Bosworth (1485)

d. Text-summary

Book 1: Arthur's Beginning (Uther, Ygraine, Gorlois-Duke of Cornwall). Uther agrees to give son to Merlin if the wizard will arrange a one night encounter with Ygraine, wife of Duke of Cornwall. Merlin gives Arthur to Sir Ector and son Sir Kay (Seneschal), whom Arthur believes is his real family.

Book 2: Balin and Balan

Book 3: Marriage of Arthur

Book 4: Gawain: Arthur’s nephew (in Malory, still a shady character)

Book 5: Arthur Becomes Emperor of Rome

Book 6: Launcelot du Lake

Book 7: Gareth: Gawain’s brother, Launcelot’s best friend. Known for his romance with Lynette

Book 8: Tristram---considered by many weakest section

Book 9: Tristram, contd.

Book 10: Tristram, contd.

Book 11: Launcelot and Elaine: Launcelot’s official wife, mother to Galahad

Book 12: Contd.

Book 13: Gawain and the beginning of Grail Quest

Book 14: Percival's adventures

Book 15: Launcelot strives for holiness

Book 16: Gawain quits quest and Bors continues

Book 17: Visions of the Grail: Climax of book. Bors, Galahad, and Percival attain complete vision of Grail (all virgins or chaste).

Book 18: Launcelot returns to sin that will eradicate Round Table: his adulterous love for Guinevere

Book 19: Destruction of Camelot as invincible Launcelot defends lie of queen's chastity and kills Gareth

Book 20: Destruction contd. Mordred, son of Arthur's sister Morgan/Morgeuse and Arthur. Arthur had sex with her because he didn’t know it was his sister (Ygraine, Arthur’s and Morgan’s mother, is reluctant to admit that she’s Arthur’s mother). Claims Arthur’s dead and Guinevere is his. Arthur is pursuing Launcelot at the urging of Gawain, enraged that Launcelot has killed Gareth.

Book 21: Arthur returns to kill Mordred, but is mortally wounded. Death of Arthur and Round Table

e. Chivalry (pp. 115-16, 144, 146, 156, 160, 207, 307, 341, 344); Launcelot as exemplar of chivalry (p. 530).

f. Courtly love: accepted form of adultery: unofficial marriage based upon secret love: Launcelot and Guinevere, Tristram and Isolde: Tristram, second to Lancelot as most powerful of the older knights, is sent by his King Mark of Cornwall to win Irish princess Isolde by killing a knight (Marhaus) who is ravaging Ireland. He does, but he and Isolde drink a love potion, becoming consumed with love with each other. They continue their intense relations even after she marries Mark, who, after repeated cowardly failures, finally stabs Tristram in the back.

g. Critical debates

i. How and why did Malory modify his sources?

ii. Sequence of the tales: is it thematic or chronological?

iii. Is the work misnamed, or is title stroke of genius, telling us the entire work about death of Arthur (about a flawed ideal)

F. Morality and Mystery (Miracle) Plays

a. Mystery Plays

i. Based on incidents from Bible, in cycles, as many as 50 in cycle, from creation to doomsday.

ii. Second Shepherd's Play: shepherds find stolen lamb in manger scene then go to Bethlehem, worship Christ Child

iii. For staging by guilds, see pp. 379-80 in the textbook.

iv. Known as "Corpus Christi" plays, for holy-day on which they were staged (moveable feast, 23 May to 24 June). A procession followed the Priest with the host through the streets: the plays evolved from this tradition and were staged as a procession. Different plays were staged (on "floats") at different parts of town, wherever the procession stopped, usually at strategic points. There was a stopping place for each play, so if you stood at one place, you'd see all the plays.

v. York Mystery Cycle had 50 plays (47 extant)

b. Morality Plays

i. Religious allegories: heavy use of personifications (which are human representations of the non-human, whether animals or things), such as in Everyman.

ii. They were not staged in cycles.